112. Compare and contrast the supernatural model of abnormal behavior and the biological model of abnormal behavior.
ANSWER: Sample Answer: The supernatural model and the biological model both sought to explain abnormal behavior. In the supernatural tradition, abnormal behavior was attributed to outside agents, such as demons or spirits. In the biological tradition, disorders were attributed to disease or biochemical imbalances. The supernatural model and the biological model both offer treatments and interventions. The supernatural model focused on exorcism, and the biological tradition focused on adjusting the humors of the body by bloodletting, and inducing vomiting. The supernatural model and the biological model both sought to improve the conditions of people suffering from disorders. The supernatural model focused on community support and the biological model focused on physical care.19.
113. Explain psychoanalytic theory. Refer to concepts such as anxiety, defense mechanisms, and psychosexual development. Use examples to illustrate these concepts.
ANSWER: Sample Answer: The psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund Freud is based on three major concepts.
-Structure of the mind. According to Freud, the mind can be divided into three major parts: the id, the source of our strong sexual and aggressive feelings or energies, which operates on the pleasure principle; the ego, or the part of the mind that operates on the reality principle to ensure that we act realistically; and the superego, or conscience, which represents the moral principles of our culture. When these areas are in conflict, it can result in anxiety.
-Defense mechanisms. In order to mediate continuing conflict between the id and the superego, the ego marshals defense mechanisms or unconscious protective processes that keep primitive emotions in check. Examples include denial, displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, repression, and sublimation.
-Psychosexual stages of development. Freud theorized that during infancy and early childhood, we pass through psychosexual stages of development in a specific order that affect our lifetime functioning. These stages include the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages, and are characterized by distinctive means of gratifying our basic needs and satisfying our drive for physical pleasure.
114. Compare and contrast the psychoanalytic perspectives of Freud with the perspectives of Jung and Adler.
ANSWER: Freud, Jung, and Adler all focused on intrapsychic conflicts. Freud emphasized sex and survival drives, while Jung and Adler focused on individual growth. Freud held to the idea of powerful id influences and a negative perspective on human nature. Jung focused on the collective unconscious, Adler focused on power (inferiority versus superiority), and they both held to a positive perspective on human nature.
115. Describe three criticisms of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.
ANSWER: Regarding psychoanalysis, treatment is lengthy and expensive, and there is a lack of evidence to support its methods. Psychoanalytic theory is also criticized for being unscientific, dependent on anecdotal reports by the patients, subject to highly interpretive by the psychoanalyst, and there has been no obvious way to prove or disprove the hypotheses of psychoanalysis.
116. Compare and contrast the research of Watson and Rayner with Little Albert and the research of Mary Cover Jones Little Peter differed.
ANSWER: Watson and Rayner, as well as Mary Cover Jones, used classical conditioning methods in their behaviorist approaches to understand human behavior. Watson used classical conditioning to condition Little Albert to become afraid of furry animals. Mary Cover Jones used classical conditioning to un-condition Little Peter not to be afraid of furry animals.
117. Explain why the concept of a multidimensional integrative approach to psychopathology appears to be the more logical choice.
Sample Answer: All of the various approaches had shortcomings when attempting to explain psychopathology. The biological model, while effective in treating some disorders, could not treat others. Since biological causes could not be found for some disorders, biological treatments could not be developed. The psychoanalytic perspective was based on anecdotal evidence and could not be scientifically evaluated. Many of the basic tenets could not be observed. Humanistic theory contributed very little new information to the field of psychopathology. Its principles were not scientifically tested, nor were they very useful in the intervention of severe psychological disorders. The behavioral model failed to account for development of psychopathology across the lifespan. It cannot explain the more complex layers of both conscious and subconscious behaviors. As the use of scientific research techniques has continued to expand our understanding of the biological, behavioral, cognitive, emotional, developmental, and social factors that contribute to behavior, it is increasingly clear that psychopathology is multiply determined. This understanding now influences our understanding of both the causes and treatments of psychological disorders.