Learning Objective: Understand the different ways leadership effectiveness is determined.
AACSB: Analytical thinking
Difficulty Level: Moderate
95) What are some of the new and cutting-edge methods used to assess leadership effectiveness?
Answer: Student answers may vary. One type of study examines social networks within organizations to determine which individuals exert influence and leadership within the network. Other studies use implicit measures to tap into automatic cognitive processes that people use without conscious awareness to describe leaders by using broad classifications such as charismatic, authentic, ethical, and empowering. Another stream of research uses biosensor methods that combine biology, chemistry, and technology to identify the physical and psychological mechanisms that underlie leader traits and behaviors, follower reactions to leaders, and the development of leader-follower relationships. Yet another cutting-edge line of research employs behavioral genetics approaches such as studies that compare the attributes of identical twins who were raised apart, or fraternal twins who were raised together, to determine the relative influence of genetic ("nature") versus environmental ("nurture") forces on leadership emergence and effectiveness. Still another emerging field of inquiry focuses on what we can learn about leadership from people's reactions to leaders' facial expressions.
Learning Objective: Understand the different ways leadership effectiveness is determined.
AACSB: Analytical thinking
Difficulty Level: Moderate
96) List and discuss the five categories into which the leadership theories in the text are classified.
Answer: Student answers may vary. To be consistent with most of the leadership literature, the theories and empirical research reviewed in this book are classified into the following five approaches: (1) the trait approach, (2) the behavior approach, (3) the power-influence approach, (4) the situational approach, and (5) the values-based approach, although some theories and research involve more than one approach. The trait approach emphasizes attributes of leaders such as personality, motives, values, and skills. Underlying this approach was the assumption that some people are natural leaders, endowed with certain traits not possessed by other people. The behavior approach began in the early 1950s after many researchers became discouraged with the trait approach and began to pay closer attention to what managers actually do on the job. After identifying observable types of leader behavior, these behaviors were related to measures of outcomes such as the performance of the leader's group or work unit. This line of research seeks to explain leadership effectiveness in terms of the amount and type of power possessed by a leader and how power is exercised. Power is viewed as important not only for influencing subordinates, but also for influencing peers, superiors, and people outside the organization, such as clients and suppliers. The situational approach emphasizes the importance of contextual factors that influence leader behavior and how it influences outcomes such as subordinate satisfaction and performance. Major situational variables include the characteristics of followers, the nature of the work performed by the leader's unit, the type of organization, and the nature of the external environment. Values-based approaches to leadership differ from the previously discussed approaches in that they highlight the importance of deeply held leader values that appeal to and influence followers.
Learning Objective: Understand the major types of leadership theories that have been studied.
AACSB: Analytical thinking
Difficulty Level: Moderate
97) In terms of classifying leadership theories, what is meant by the "levels of conceptualization?"
Answer: Student answers may vary. Another way to classify leadership theories is in terms of the "level of conceptualization" used to describe a leader's influence on others. Leadership can be described as (1) an intra-individual process for leaders, (2) a dyadic process involving leader interaction with one subordinate, (3) a group process, or (4) an organizational process. The levels can be viewed as a hierarchy, starting with individual, then dyadic, then group, and finally organization. What level is emphasized will depend on the primary research question, the type of criterion variables used to evaluate leadership effectiveness, and the type of mediating processes used to explain leadership influence.
Learning Objective: Understand the major types of leadership theories that have been studied.
AACSB: Analytical thinking
Difficulty Level: Moderate